Micro Economic Environment Essay

The economic environment consists of external factors in a business’ market and the broader economy that can influence a business. You can divide the economic environment into the microeconomic environment, which affects business decision-making such as individual actions of firms and consumers, and the macroeconomic environment, which affects an entire economy and all of its participants. Many economic factors act as external constraints on your business, which means that you have little, if any, control over them. Let’s take a look at both of these broad factors in more detail Macroeconomic influences are broad economic factors that either directly or indirectly affect the entire economy and all of its participants, including your business. These factors include such things as: Interest rates Taxes Inflation Currency exchange rates Consumer discretionary income Savings rates Consumer confidence levels Unemployment rate Recession Depression Microeconomic factors influence how your business will make decisions. Unlike macroeconomic factors, these factors are far less broad in scope and do not necessarily affect the entire economy as a whole. Microeconomic factors influencing a business include: Market size Demand Supply Competitors Suppliers Distribution chain – such as retailer stores Why Is It Important? The economic environment of business will play a pivotal role in determining the success or failure of a business. Let’s first consider some  macroeconomic factors. If interest rates are too high, the cost of borrowing may not permit a business to expand. On the other hand, if unemployment rate is high, businesses can obtain labor at cheaper costs. However, if unemployment is too high, this may result in a recession and less discretionary consumer spending resulting in insufficient sales to keep the business going. Tax rates will take a chunk of your income and currency exchange rates can either help or hurt the exporting of your products to specific foreign markets. Now, let’s turn our attention to microeconomic factors for a bit. Market size may determine the viability of entering into a new market. If a market is too small, there may not be sufficient demand and profit potential. This leads us to the concept of demand and supply. If your product is in high demand but there is a low supply of it, you are going to make a tidy profit, but if your product is in low demand and the market is flooded with similar products, you may be facing bankruptcy. The quality and quantity of your competition will affect how well you do in winning customers in the marketplace. Suppliers are the arteries pumping vital supplies and resources to you for production. If you have problems with suppliers, it can clog up those arteries and cause serious problems. Likewise, the type of relationship you have with your distributors, such as retail stores, may influence how quickly your products leave their shelves. Summary The environment in which a business operates is very complex and has a great deal of influence on how a business performs and whether it will succeed. Macroeconomic factors influence not only a business but also all participants in an economy and include such things as interest rates, inflation, unemployment rates, taxes, discretionary spending, periods of growth and recession. Microeconomic factors also influence the success or failure of a business and include such things as market size, demand, supply, competitors, suppliers, and distributors.

Posttraumatic stress disorder Research Essay

223. 4 million U. S. citizens have experienced a traumatic event at least once in their lives. This is about 70% of adults in the USA. Today 31. 1 million people are struggling with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) (Rosenthal). PTSD is defined as re-experiencing, avoidance, and arousal, due to a traumatic event. The symptoms are either long lasting or have a delayed onset (Oltmanns & Emery, 2012). A traumatic event that involves actual or threatened death or serious injury to self or others, can create intense feelings of fear, helplessness, or horror (Oltmanns & Emery, 2012). This traumatic event then can lead to a serious anxiety disorder such as PTSD. Examples range from witnessing another individual in a life or death crisis to experiencing a life or death crisis first. While PTSD affects a large percentage of the world’s population, only recorded incidents are placed in statistics. However around the world traumatic events are not uncommon, with the cases of genocide in Rwanda to war torn counties in the Middle East, and all the way back to the survivors of 9/11 and US troops back from Iraq, it is no wonder that PTSD is one of the most common disorders. This paper will summarize symptoms, causation, prevention and treatment of PTSD. There are four main categories that the symptoms of PTSD are grouped into. The first is re-experiencing the traumatic event or incident. There are a few different ways one can re-experience the trauma. Some may repeatedly visualize distressing images of either the incident or something closely related. There may be a constant thought of the event as it unfolded. Some may focus on how they could have done things differently assuming there might have been a better ending or the event would have been avoided entirely. Others will experience horrifying dreams or night terrors that will either be an exact flashback from the traumatic event or a metaphor of some sort that is equally traumatic. For example, a woman with PTSD who was a paramedic and was dispatched to the scene of the twin towers on 9/11 experienced nightmares of a fire breathing dragon. A friend of hers stated that it was as if there was a fire breathing dragon with all the fire and trauma that engulfed the paramedics (Psych Lab Video Case). Last are flashbacks that one will re- experience. â€Å"Flashbacks are sudden memories during which the trauma is replayed in images or thoughts often at full motional intensity† (Oltmanns & Emery, 2012). The next symptom of PTSD is avoidance. One who suffers from PTSD will avoid all stimuli associated with the trauma. This means avoiding feelings, thoughts, people, places, and activities that remind them of the trauma. One critical symptom of avoidance is a numbing of responsiveness or emotional anesthesia, which causes sufferers to withdraw from others and hide or conceal their emotions. This is known to have a large effect on family and loved ones who attempt to help (Oltmanns & Emery, 2012). The last symptom of PTSD is arousal or anxiety. PTSD is grouped in the DSM-IV-TR as an anxiety disorder because of the effects of arousal and the secondary anxiety it causes. Anxiety may show itself through hyper-vigilance, restlessness, agitation, irritability, exaggerated startle responses, and excessive fear reactions to unexpected stimuli (Oltmanns & Emery, 2012). In order to assess and diagnose a person with PTSD, a person must re-experience the traumatic event at least once, they must have at least three symptoms of avoidance, two hyperarousal symptoms, and symptoms that make it hard to go about their daily life such as school, work, etc. nimh. nih. gov). If a majority of the world’s population experiences many or at least one traumatic event, how is it that not everyone develops PTSD? There a few factors that cause PTSD. Trauma is necessary for PTSD to develop but is not the only cause (Oltmanns & Emery, 2012). Social factors include the amount of trauma the individual would be subjected to. For example, a police officer would have a higher rate of developing PTSD because of the exposure they commit themselves to as part of their career. Individuals are more likely to develop PTSD depending on the severity of the event. Some people can be categorized as â€Å"risk takers† which would make them more vulnerable to developing PTSD such as a police officer or paramedic. Other risk factors include having a history of mental illness, getting hurt, living through traumas, having no social support or dealing with extra stress after the traumatic event such as loss of loved one (nimh. nih. gov). Prevention of PTSD is possible and circumstances can take place that would help individuals prevent the disorder from developing even though traumatic events that could lead to PTSD are unknown or may come as a surprise. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) provides mental health assistance after a tragic event. An early intervention is critical. Incident stress debriefing is a five hour group meeting where citizens share events and tragedies after a disaster (Oltmanns & Emery, 2012). Police officers and all emergency personnel are given some sort of PTSD prevention therapy (Sanford). This is due to the fact that they have a high risk exposure to traumatic events. Treatment for PTSD varies and there several different types of psychotherapies that can be used to treat the disorder as well as medication. The main therapy currently used is cognitive processing therapy, or CPT. Cognitive processing therapy can be done in an individual or a group setting. A therapist will help a patient reevaluate how they feel about a traumatic situation. For example, many victims of sexual violence and rape place the blame on themselves. The efficacy of the therapy has held up. Recently, Congolese women who survived the intense conflict in their country and were subjected to rape and sexual violence underwent months of CPT to ease the post-traumatic stress. The results were promising, though the women appeared to respond better to the group therapy. â€Å"After four months, the proportion of women with probable PTSD dropped from 60 percent to 8 percent in the cognitive processing therapy group; the proportion of those with depression or anxiety plummeted from 71 to 10 percent. Their functional impairment scores dropped by half. In the women who received individual support counseling, rates of probable PTSD, depression or anxiety declined less, from 83 percent to about 54 percent. † (Seppa, 2013) Another helpful PTSD therapy is Prolonged Exposure Therapy or PE. PE requires the patient to expose themselves to safe but uncomfortable situations that they have been avoiding due to their PTSD. The patient is also taught breathing relaxation techniques in order to lessen the anxiety associated with reintroducing themselves to traumatic tasks (U. S. Department of Veterans Affairs). The patient is also asked to talk repeatedly about the traumatic situation which eventually leads to habituation or a neutral response to the once negative stimuli. Medication is the other option for treatment of PTSD. Though it is not completely curable, it can be managed by a wide variety of medications. Currently, the evidence base is strongest for the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). The only two FDA approved medications for the treatment of PTSD are sertraline (Zoloft) and paroxetine (Paxil) (1, 2)† (Jeffereys). There are also some obstacles to overcome in getting patients to best respond to this treatment. Patients are often concerned about the side effects of the medication, about learning to rely on the medication rather than fixing the root problem, about getting addicted and they may begin to abuse the medications by mixing them with alcohol if the PTSD is severe (Jeffereys). In addition, recent studies have suggested that long term exposure to anti-depressants may actually hamper a patient’s ability to respond positively to therapy (Nauert, 2013). A new study conducted by researchers at Emory, University of Miami and Scripps Research Institute has showed promise in prevention of PTSD. The results of the study suggest that exposing victims of trauma to morphine immediately after experiencing the distressing event may do more than just ease physical pain. Morphine may also play a role in â€Å"fear learning†. When the drug was administered to a group of mice after exposure to a stressful event, they â€Å"could still learn to become afraid of sounds and shocks, but the fearful memories were not as durable and the mice did not freeze as much in response to the sound alone two days later, even if they had been previously exposed to stress† (Eastman , 2013). Some other â€Å"out of the box† potential treatments include channeling all energy into martial arts training or service dog training (London, 2013). The idea here would be to distract the brain away from the negative thoughts by focusing all the patients’ resources into positive activities.

Leadership Case Study

Leadership in General The study of leadership has an extremely long history, and presently is one of the most popular areas of management study and publishing. Yet, despite this long history of interest in the subject of leadership much is still unknown and unresolved about the idea of leadership. Today, there are many different conceptions about what constitutes leadership and effective leaders. Notice that most people talk about leadership as if they clearly understand what constitutes leadership. They also assume that other people share that unspoken understanding.Yet, both of these assumptions are probably false most of the time. Leadership in General For example, try to clearly and concisely define what you mean by â€Å"leadership. † Then ask someone else for their definition of leadership. Can either of you define it well? Do your definitions agree? Are your definitions so broad that they could describe activities that you do not think constitute leadership? Conversely, are your definitions so narrow that they cannot describe leadership in a variety of different situations? Now define â€Å"management. Is your definition of â€Å"management† different than your definition of â€Å"leadership? † Should â€Å"management† and â€Å"leadership† be defined differently, or are they in reality the same concept? The questions could go on, but you get the point. Leadership is difficult to define and differentiate from other concepts. Now think about what constitutes â€Å"effective† leadership? Hundreds, if not thousands, of books on leadership have been published over the past two or three decades. Each book propounds a somewhat unique theory of what constitutes â€Å"effective† leadership; each supporting its claims with anecdotes and testimonials.Similarly, magazine articles, television shows, and books constantly herald the newest effective leader. Often, a few years later, either the company fails or the lead er acts in a manner that calls into question whether that person ever possessed the leadership qualities and behaviors attributed to him or her. Think about the rise and fall of some chief executive officers over the past few years. But, does defrauding people, ending up in jail, or bankrupting a company necessarily mean that the person was never an effective leader?  Also you can read about  History of the Culinary Arts.Some might argue the final results determine the effectiveness of leadership; others might argue that it is the process of leading, not the outcome, that defines effective leadership. Despite all this uncertainty, people are so fascinated by the idea of â€Å"leaders† that they continue to believe that â€Å"leadership† exists and matters. This course cannot possibly reconcile all the competing leadership theories, nor can it do much to explain why some apparently effective leaders fail miserably later, or fail as leaders in some other aspect of th eir life. Moreover, few of us want to read about every leadership theory ever espoused by someone.Rather, the primary objective of this course (and the textbook) is to introduce you to a variety of different leadership theories that have some research support and have stood the test of time (to varying degrees). When people make conflicting claims about leadership, the scientific model proposes that research should be conducted to determine which of the competing theories has more factual support. Without research, there would be no way to determine which plausible theory better reflects reality, or whether any theory actually reflects reality.Chapter 1- The Nature and Importance of Leadership There are many different definitions of leadership, and the textbook outlines several definitions. However, most definitions have the common theme that leadership is about influencing people to achieve goals that are accepted by the group members, or followers. Notice that this theme doesn't l imit leadership to formal leadership positions, nor does it say that there can only be one leader at a time, or that leadership only flows from the â€Å"top-down. † The other common theme in many definitions is that leadership is a process, not a role.Thus, many people can be leaders at the same time because all are involved in the leadership process. One person may be more effective than the other people. But all of the people could be acting as â€Å"leaders† in the process sense of leadership. In this light, leadership is a broad construct that encompasses many different types of influence from many different types of people in many different types of contexts. While this is a broad definition, maybe more of a description, some people question whether there is any great value in trying to more narrowly define leadership.The study of what determines the effectiveness of different influence techniques in organizations doesn't necessarily require agreement on the defi nition of the overarching construct, or what is called leadership. On the other hand, the argument can be made that a better definition of leadership helps ensure that everyone is discussing the same concept. There is no clear answer to this debate, but for the purposes of this course leadership refers to the processes that people use to influence other people to achieve accepted goals. The leader is simply the person or persons who are making that influence effort.Another critical point of the chapter is that leadership outcomes result from the reciprocal interactions of the â€Å"leader,† followers (or â€Å"group members†), and the situation. Although we often think of leadership as a one-way influence, the leadership process necessarily includes the context in which the influence attempt occurs (i. e. , the situation) and the object of the influence attempt (i. e. , the followers). Thus, followers shape the leader's behaviors and attitudes just like leaders shape t he followers' attitudes and behaviors.In the extreme case of â€Å"servant leadership† and â€Å"stewardship† models of leadership, the general thrust is that effective leaders focus on aiding or facilitating the followers. This in turn helps the leader accomplish organizational goals. This general framework shapes the organization of the book (see Figure 1-2). The distinction between â€Å"leaders† and â€Å"manager† is discussed in this chapter (see Table 1-1 Leaders versus Managers). Leader| Manager| Visionary| Rational| Passionate| Businesslike| Creative| Persisitent| Inspiring| Tough-Minded| Innovative| Analytical| Imaginative| Deliberative| Experimental| Authoritative|Warm and Radiant| Cool and reserved| Initiator| Implementer| Acts as a coach, consultant, teacher| Acts as a boss| Does the right things| Does things right| Inspires through great ideas| Commands through position| Knows results are achieved through people| Focuses on results| Focuses o n uplifting ideas| Focuses on plumbing| The distinction is largely unproductive because the extent to which a person performs managerial versus leadership roles is largely a question of degree, as the book points out. Managers' jobs are difficult enough without considering them to be second-class citizens incapable of leadership.In fact, effective leaders need to be good managers, and vice versa. This is highlighted in the textbook's discussion of leadership roles because many of them could also be characterized as â€Å"managerial† roles. Moreover, according to a common framework proposed by Henry Mintzberg, leadership is only one of many managerial roles. (See Mintzberg, H. (1980). The Nature of Managerial Work. Prentice Hall. ) A major concern relating to the first chapter is the issue of whether leadership makes a difference in reality. While this question could have been put off until the end of the course it is useful to at least think about it now.Then, you can see if your opinions change during the course. Moreover, before devoting time to studying leadership one should know whether the time will be well-spent. The general conclusion is that leadership makes a difference in many cases, but not in all situations. When there are factors that substitute for leadership (or even neutralize leadership attempts), leaders may not be able to make much difference. The book outlines a number of factors that substitute for leadership, but there are many more factors that have been researched with mixed results.In reality, there is no evidence that leadership substitutes always exist, or that they necessarily undercut attempts at leadership. Therefore, people should be careful about attributing success or failures solely to leadership. Leaders can only do so much given the constraints they face. The existence of constraints is the basis for Pfeffer's â€Å"leader irrelevance† theory. Similarly, â€Å"complexity† theory holds that leaders have l ittle influence in complex organizational systems. For example, look at coaches and managers in profession sports.Often they are fired after poor seasons, yet no new manager or coach can succeed either because their players simply aren't as good as the other players and teams in the league. Usually they have little control over which players are hired, which makes it even more irrational to attribute the success or failure of the coach to his or her leadership ability. Another common example is organizational success in good economic times and organizational downturns in poor economic times. Obviously, the economy is out of any individual's control, so good times and bad times cannot be attributed to the leader.On the next page, you will read an excerpt from an article that suggests that leadership does make a difference. Leadership Makes a Difference Below you can read a short excerpt from an article about Commander D. Michael Abrashoff and what he calls â€Å"Grassroots Leadershi p. † This article suggests that leadership does make a difference. But what makes this a particularlyinteresting leadership anecdote is that it appears that the best explanation for the dramatic improvement on the ship is probably the change in commanders. The reason is that all Navy ships operate under substantially similar rules with basically similar crews.Therefore, when a change occurs on one ship that doesn't occur on other ships, then the change is quite likely due to whatever changed in the situation, in this case the change in leadership. Whether you find the article persuasive or not, the other point is that by the end of the course you should be able to characterize Commander Abrashoff's leadership style in terms of the theories you will be studying in this course. Enlightened Leadership in the U. S. Navy by Jonette Crowley Commander D. Michael Abrashoff had a mission. Through what he calls â€Å"Grassroots Leadership,† he turned around the operations of the USS Benfold, one of the U.S. Navy's most modern warships. His methods aren't complex, yet the results are astounding. * Under Mike Abrashoff's 20-month command, the Benfold operated on 75% of its allocated budget, returning $1. 4 million to the Navy coffers. * During that time, the ship's combat readiness indicators were the highest ever in the history of the Pacific Fleet. * The promotion rate of his people was 2-1/2 times the Navy average. * The pre-deployment training cycle, which usually takes a total of 52 days, was completed by the Benfold crew in just 19 days. During a 12-month period under the previous command, there were 28 disciplinary actions for which 23 sailors were discharged. During Abrashoff's tenure there were five disciplinary cases and no discharges. * Under his predecessor 31 people were detached from the ship for limited duty, usually for complaints of â€Å"bad backs. † He had only two crew members leave for health reasons. * A third of all recruits don' t make it through their first term of enlistment, and only 54% of sailors stay in the Navy after their second duty tour. Commander Abrashoff had 100% of the Benfold's career sailors signing on for another tour.It is estimated that this retention alone saved the Navy $1. 6 million in 1998. What did he do to stage such a turnaround in less than 20 months? He asked questions, he listened, he acted on what he heard. Almost immediately upon taking command, he had a 15 to 20 minute personal interview with each of his staff of 300. He asked these questions: * â€Å"What do you like best about this ship? † * â€Å"What do you like least? † * â€Å"What would you change if you could? † He made it a point to â€Å"see the ship from the eyes of each crew member. † Abrashoff acted as quickly as he could to institute the ideas that came from these interviews.He focused on what was important: morale and combat readiness. â€Å"I didn't put an emphasis on paperwork,â⠂¬  says Abrashoff. He encouraged his middle managers (junior officers) to delegate the paperwork that had always swamped them and focus instead on the training that enabled them to run the weapons and the ship. â€Å"That inspires confidence in the officers for our combat readiness, and the lower level people loved the responsibility for the paperwork stuff that the officers used to do,† the commander reports. Abrashoff analyzed the processes, always assuming that there has got to be a better way.Simply following SOP (Standard Operating Procedures), or doing things the way they've always been done, didn't hold water. The rules were changed or bent, always with the vision in mind of doing what was best for the crew. â€Å"Saving money wasn't the focus, it was a by-product of efficiency. We did things right the first time. † He set the vision and trusted his crew. He helped people take pride in their work. â€Å"I gave my officers my trust and free rein. They didn't w ant to lose that trust. † Abrashoff said, â€Å"I focused on doing right by the crew, not by the admirals.I didn't even care if I ever got promoted again. That gave me the freedom to do what made sense. † One of the biggest complaints was the food, so he sent five of the Benfold's cooks to culinary school. The ship is now known as having some of the best food in the Navy, making it a showcase for VIPs. By focusing on the needs and ideas of his people, by relaxing the rules, by giving control over to his officers, a ship's culture has been changed, and with it the lives and confidence of scores of young sailors. A â€Å"virtuous cycle† has been set up that is continuing to inspire the crew to do even better.Even after Mike Abrashoff has taken up other duties at his home base in San Diego, the USS Benfold continues to have the highest combat readiness indicators ever seen in the entire Pacific Fleet.  © 1999 Enlightened Leadership Int'l, Inc. Enlightened Leadersh ip International Transforming Organizations Through People www. enleadership. com [email  protected] com 800-798-9881 or 303-729-0540 Chapter 2 – Traits, Motives and Characteristics of Leaders Trait-based theories of leadership are among the oldest leadership theories, and they are still considered somewhat important today.The earliest theories were â€Å"universal† theories that tried to find the leader's personal qualities that differentiated effective from ineffective leaders in all situations. Although these personal characteristics and qualities are usually called traits, they are not limited to personality traits (inner qualities). For example, the textbook refers to many different personal characteristics, including personality traits, in Chapter 2. Unfortunately, the trait approach does not tell us which traits are most important, in which situations or how much of a trait is required.The biggest problem was that people who possessed the traits deemed critica l were not always leaders, i. e. , the traits were necessary, but not sufficient for leadership. Moreover, trait-based theories cannot explain why people are not always successful leaders in all situations. History is full of military leaders who were effective in war, but not in peace. The converse is also true. On the other hand, recent research has found that some traits are important in a wide-variety of situations, but not all situations. In addition, in specific situations there are likely to be specific traits that are important.The â€Å"trait-based† theories do not limit themselves to personality traits, so do not be fooled into limiting the scope of the personal qualities to personality dimensions. The theories include any characteristic on which individuals differ, such as intelligence, physical characteristics, attitudes, values, and personality traits, to name a few. At some point, the distinction between a trait and a behavior is blurred, but in general the dist inction is between â€Å"who you are† versus â€Å"what you do. † The textbook lists a wide-range of traits found to be important, and categorizes them into: * Personality Traits Motives and Drives * Power Motive * Tenacity * Strong Work Ethic * Drive and Achievement Motive * Cognitive Factors * Analytical Intelligence * Knowledge of the business * Creativity * Insight into people and situations * Farsightedness and conceptual thinking While you don't need to memorize every possible leadership trait, it is worthwhile reading the lists. You should be able to recognize the most important traits. Perhaps more importantly, you should be able to reject some traits as unrelated to effective leadership, such as gender and race.In conclusion, research suggests that effective leaders possess different personal characteristics than ineffective leaders or non-leaders. Knowing which traits are associated with leadership effectiveness helps in the selection of leaders. To the exten t you can train people to develop a trait, knowing the importance of different traits helps organizations to design leadership development programs. For example, some aspects of emotional intelligence, which is a collection of traits and behaviors, can be taught and practiced. The trait-based approach to leadership is less valuable ecause present research cannot definitively specify which traits, and how much of those traits, are most useful in a specific situation. General Comments about Assignments Write your answers and comments concisely, answering the question(s) as directly as possible. Remember, you must answer the questions about cases using the facts of the case and the concepts introduced in the textbook and any additional readings. The general format for all your case answers is to relate the concepts and principles from the textbook or other readings to the facts in the case.Reporting all sorts of background information is unnecessary. However, you do need to refer back to the facts in the case that support your statements and conclusions. Your answer will be graded on the quality of your analysis and its clarity. It is difficult to describe the length of and amount of detail that should be in good answers. Obviously, this is a judgment call that varies case by case, and question by question. However, usually you can write good answers in 500-700 words per case, although obviously this varies according to the number of questions you are asked to answer.You may exceed the word limits without penalty when necessary to adequately answer the questions. Review the Syllabus for more information on answering case assignment questions, but in general good tests of the quality of your analysis is to ask yourself â€Å"Does this answer show that I read and understood the material in the text? † and â€Å"Could I have written this answer without reading the book? † As for the self-assessment exercises in this course, if there is more than one se lf-assessment exercise assigned during the week, then you must submit all of your scores and comments in one assignment submission.When more than one self-assessment exercise is assigned in a week, clearly identify the separate exercises. Don't forget to discuss whether you think the score is an accurate reflection of you or the person being evaluated. Other reflections are also valuable. Refer to the Syllabus for more detailed comments about answering questions and the grading standards. The Syllabus controls in the event of some accidental inconsistency between the Weekly Schedule and the Syllabus. General Instructions for Submitting Assignments What follows is a brief review of how to submit assignments. For details, efer to the Welcome page. Submit your answers to the assignments by locating the assignment within each weekly module. You can also find the list of assignments by going to the Assignments tool over in the toolbar on the left. But if you only use the toolbar, you may miss important information that is contained within each weekly module. Make certain you choose the correct assignment and submit the correct answer for that assignment. This week you will be submitting†1. 1 – Week 1 Case Assignment† for your answer to the case assignment and â€Å"1. 2 – Week 1 Self-Assessment Exercise† for your self-assessment answers.Next week and in the following weeks, the set-up will always be the same. You will NOT be attaching a document to submit. I suggest you compose your answer in a Word document so that you can edit and spell check but for submission, copy and paste your answer into the text box under the word â€Å"submission† in the assignment tool. If you submit the answer to the wrong link, your answer will not be graded. You can be penalized for late submissions, as outlined in the Syllabus. Required Readings The following items are required reading for this week: DuBrin, A. (2013) Leadership: Research Findi ngs, Practices, and Skills (7th ed).Mason, OH: South-Western * Chapter 1: The Nature and Importance of Leadership * Chapter 2: Traits, Motives and Characteristics of Leaders Copies of these two chapters are included in the â€Å"Textbook eReserves† folder on the Course Homepage for your convenience. If you have not yet purchased your textbook, you should do so immediately. Please go to MBS Direct to find the appropriate textbooks for this course. Discussions After reading the course materials and required readings, you should be prepared to participate in our weekly discussion. * Week 1 Discussion – Effective LeadersIdentify a person you interact with and regard as an effective leader. * What traits described by DuBrin in Chapter 2 apply to this person? * What traits do not apply? * Do these affect his or her overall performance? If so, how Once you post your answer please respond to at least one other students' post. A link to the discussion can be found on the follow ing page. Assignments Please complete the following assignments and submit via the Assignments tool. You will find a link to each of these assignments within this module. Directions for completing the assignments can be found in the syllabus.Remember to use the text box for your submission – Do not attach a document. * Case Study * Ch. 1 Leadership Case Problem A – Mike Todman Makes a Splash at Whirlpool. Pgs. 30-31 * Questions 1, 2, and 3. * Self Assessments * Ch. 1 Quiz 1-1 Readiness of the Leadership Role. Pgs. 11 – 12 * Ch. 2 Quiz 2-2 Behaviors and Attitudes of a Trustworthy Leader. Pg. 42 This week you will continue studying leader traits in the context of charismatic leaders and transformational leaders. Charisma is clearly a trait the some people possess, which suggests it may be difficult to teach, i. e. the â€Å"right stuff† of leadership. However, there is some evidence that if a person exhibits behaviors that followers associate with charismat ic people, the person will be seen as charismatic. Thus, perhaps charisma can be taught, or, at least, faked. When a leader's charisma is oriented towards transforming an organization, it becomes one factor in transformational leadership. However, transformational leadership encompasses more than charismatic leaders. Transformational leaders focus on developing the followers and getting them to direct their efforts towards changing the status quo.This contrasts with the idea of â€Å"transactional† leaders who primarily focus on exchanges with the followers that result in the maintenance of the status quo. Thus, transformational leadership relates to organization development and change; therefore, this aspect of leadership is taught in most organizational behavior courses. Then we completely shift the focus away from â€Å"trait-based† theories of leadership to â€Å"behavior-based† or â€Å"behavioral† leadership theories. Behavioral theories suggest tha t â€Å"leaders can be made† by teaching would-be leaders the behaviors used by effective leaders.As you will see, leader's traits are not part of this group of leadership theories, although they may predispose people to behave certain ways. Basically, the simplest model divides leader behaviors into relationship-oriented and task- or performance-oriented behaviors. There are many variations on this dichotomy, which is the main point of the chapter. Several â€Å"universal† models of leadership emerged from the research on leader behaviors, but like the universal â€Å"trait† models studied last week, the models do not explain why the same leader behaviors are effective in one situation and not in another.However, pay attention to these behavioral models because they form the bases for many of the contingency theories you will see later in the course. Leadership studies conducted at Ohio State University identified the importance of two broadly defined categorie s of leadership, â€Å"consideration† and â€Å"initiating structure†. Consideration is the degree to which leaders interact with others in a friendly and supportive manner. Initiating structure, the second factor, represents how the leader structures his or her subordinate's roles to accomplish common objectives.The Ohio State studies were accompanied by a comprehensive research program at the University of Michigan. The focus of the research at Michigan was on relationships related to leader behavior, group processes and group performance. The principle types of leader behavior identified in the Michigan studies were â€Å"job centered† which is similar to consideration and â€Å"employee centered† which is similar to initiating structure. Required Readings The following items are required reading for this week: DuBrin, A. (2013) Leadership: Research Findings, Practices, and Skills (7th ed).Mason, OH: South-Western * Chapter 3: Charisma and Transformati onal Leadership * Chapter 4: Leadership Behaviors, Attitudes and Styles Additional Readings * Review the article on leadership and emotional intelligence: Goleman, D. , Boyatzis, R. , & McKee, A. (2001). Primal Leadership: The Hidden Driver of Great Performance. Harvard Business Review, 79(11), 42-51. This and other articles are available from the library website. Click on the Library link in the Course Menu to get direct access to the Webster University library. Be sure to read the material before doing the assignments and discussions.Hover your mouse here: Directions for accessing the Library to see the steps for accessing a database in the Webster University Library. 1. The Library link under the Course Menu on the left side of your course page will take you directly to the Library Resources for Walker School of Business and Technology. 2. In the area â€Å"Find other database content by subject: Choose Business and Financials 3. On the right side of the page, under More Informa tion, choose Journal/magazine/newspaper list. 4. In Find the Journal title, type Harvard Business Review and click Search. 5. The journal will be identified on the next page.Click on Look up Article. 6. In the box that says â€Å"Article Title† type â€Å"Primal Leadership† and in the Date box type â€Å"2001† then click Search. 7. The next page lets you know the article is available. Click Article. 8. On the Journal/Magazine/Newspaper List page, at the middle of the page where it indicates â€Å"Find a journal title†, enter Harvard Business Review and click on Search 9. You will be required to enter your last name, your student number, and EWL at the end of your student number to gain access to the library databases. Chapter 3 – Charismatic and Transformational LeadershipCharismatic Leadership The oldest line of leadership research appears to be the search for the defining traits of leaders. One line of this research was the attempt to explain cha rismatic leaders. Charismatic leaders are so exciting, stimulating, magnetic, and visionary that followers willingly accept their leadership. This clearly roots the idea of charismatic leadership in the realm of trait-based leadership models. As you might expect, the original theorizing about charismatic leaders was not in the organizational context, but around religion and social movements.There are several theories of charismatic leadership, and according to most, charismatic leaders have the following attributes: Charismatic Leadership Attributes| They have compelling visions. | They have masterful communication skills. | They have the ability to inspire trust. | They are able to make group members feel capable. | They have energy and an action orientation. | They have emotional expressiveness and warmth. | They romanticize and take personal risks. | They use unconventional strategies. | They have a self-promoting personality. | They challenge followers. | They are dramatic and u nique. |There are a variety of charismatic leaders, but the most important distinctions are between leaders with personalized power motives versus leaders with socialized power motives. A socialized charismatic leader uses power to benefit the followers and the group, whereas the personalized charismatic leader uses power to serve his or her own interests. This may or may not help the group attain its goals, but attaining those goals is not the focus of the personalized charismatic leader. Research suggests that a person can increase his or her charisma by copying the behaviors of charismatic leaders. These behaviors include the following: 1.Articulate compelling visions for the future 2. Be enthusiastic, optimistic, and energetic (perhaps these are traits, but you can act like you are enthusiastic, optimistic, and energetic) 3. Persist in the face of adversity 4. Personalize your interactions with people, such as remembering their names 5. Maintain your physical appearance 6. Appea r to be candid 7. Reject the status quo or be defiant. Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership is related to charismatic leadership, but this newer group of theories focuses not on the leader's traits, but on the transformation of the organization.Perhaps being charismatic helps, but it is not enough to transform an organization. The transformational leader helps bring about major, positive changes in the organization. Four factors are seen as elements of transformational leadership are : * charisma * inspirational leadership * intellectual stimulation * individualized consideration According to one transformational leadership theory, the transformational leaders can be contrasted with a transactional leader. The transactional leader focuses on routine, day-to-day exchanges (or transactions) with the followers.The transactional leader rewards followers who meet existing standards of performance. While the concept of transactional leadership highlights the distinction between maintaining versus transforming an organization, the concept is not used much. Instead, the research focus has been on the more specific theories that you will learn later in the course, such as behavioral or contingency theories of leadership. Chapter 4 – Leadership Behaviors, Attitudes, and Styles This chapter introduces students to research on leadership behaviors, sometimes called leadership styles.When the research on leader traits and other characteristics was relatively unsuccessful in explaining leadership, the research changed orientation from â€Å"what a leader is like† to â€Å"what a leader does. † The focus was on leaders' behaviors, not on their underlying traits. This was a somewhat optimistic shift as well because this line of research indicated that leaders could be trained. This is in contrast to the â€Å"leaders are born† orientation of the trait-based leadership research. There are relatively few important behavior-based uni versal models, and most have been superseded by newer contingency models (discussed in Chapter 5).Knowing these early behavior-based models are important for a couple reasons. First, knowing them help students appreciate how leadership models evolve. Second, they are important because contingency theories (discussed in Chapter 5) attempt to incorporate these behaviors into their frameworks. Behavior-based Leadership Models Researchers at Ohio State University and the University of Michigan were among the first to study what behaviors were used by effective managers or leaders. The research found that effective leadership behaviors can be categorized as focusing on: 1. Relationships with followers (i. . , addressing their social and emotional needs) or 2. The tasks that need to be performed to increase productivity. There are many different terms or phrases describing effective leaders' behaviors. Task-oriented behaviors are called a variety of names, such as: * Work-oriented * Task- oriented * Production-oriented * Concern for production * Initiating structure * Directive behaviors With respect to the social and emotional focus, the labels or names include: people-oriented, worker-oriented, relationship-oriented, social, consideration, concern for people, and concern for relationship. Note: There are subtle differences among the different concepts, but you do not need to know them for this course. ) Some theories assumed that leaders could be either task-oriented (Concern for Results) or relationship-oriented (Concern for People), but not both. However, researchers at Ohio State assumed that leaders could demonstrate high or low amount of each type of behavior. In other words, task-oriented and relationship-oriented behaviors were not mutually inconsistent and a leader could be high on both dimensions, low on both dimensions, or high on one and low on the other dimension.This last view became the foundation for contingency theories and more modern universal mod els, such as the â€Å"Leadership Grid† (see Figure 4-3 pages 126 and 127). The descriptions of the positions on the chart are as follows: * 9,1 Controlling * 1,9 Accommodating * 5,5 Status Quo * 1,1 Indifferent * Paternalistic (1,9 and 9,1) * Opportunistic (all green quadrants) * 9,9 Sound Although behavior-based leadership theories are usually considered to be universal leadership models, the textbook's discussion of â€Å"adaptability† suggests more of a contingency approach. Undoubtedly, the behavioral research can be modified to accommodate ontingencies, but they were originally universal in nature. Other dimensions have also been investigated since the original research, but the importance of behavior-based theories rests primarily in the recognition of two broad dimensions of leader behaviors. You will see this more clearly when you study contingency leadership theories. Participative Leadership The chapter then briefly addresses â€Å"participative leadership. † Despite the relatively little coverage of this topic in the text, a key decision managers and leaders must make is how much to â€Å"empower† the followers.Tannenbaum and Schmidt developed an early model that had a continuum of leadership decision making behaviors that ranged from â€Å"boss-centered† to â€Å"employee-centered† behaviors. This theory focused on allocating decision making authority to employees, ranging from autocratic (â€Å"boss-centered†) to more or less participative (â€Å"employee-centered†) decision making. These two leader decision making behaviors were at opposite ends of a continuum. Therefore, in theory, a leader cannot be autocratic and participative at the same time. However, towards the center of the continuum the two styles blur together somewhat, with moderate levels of each style.The textbook addresses this topic in terms of a subsequent model that divides this continuum into autocratic and participative s tyles. The participative style is subdivided into consultative, consensus, and democratic styles. Issues The text next discusses two issues related to leadership. First, the book describes entrepreneurial leaders' traits and behaviors as if there was one way to be an entrepreneur (i. e. , a universal approach to entrepreneurship). However, this may be misleading because the best entrepreneurial style may depend on the followers and entrepreneurial idea.In other words, quite possibly there are no universally effective entrepreneurial styles. Perhaps future research will shed more light on this issue. Next, the textbook discusses whether men and women have fundamentally different leadership styles that are relatively consistent across situations. If so, in essence these differences would be universal styles for each gender. Past research on gender differences in leadership has been hampered by many factors, such as there being relatively few female leaders of large organizations. In d dition, the observed gender differences may be due to the followers' expectations based on their stereotypes about each gender's typical leadership styles and relatively inflexible social norms that shaped both gender's behaviors. You can draw your own conclusions about the chapter's comments on gender differences in leadership styles. However, it may be useful to reflect on a couple points. First, if you reject the importance of universal models of leadership, then any difference in male and female leadership styles becomes relatively unimportant. If contingency theories are correct, there is no one best way to lead.Thus, neither gender can corner the market on leadership, even if there are relatively stable differences in male and female leaders' preferred leadership styles. Second, there is so much individual variation in preferred leadership styles within each gender that discovering a â€Å"typical† or average style is unlikely to adequately describe the leadership style of any specific person. Many men are relationship-oriented, and many women are task-oriented, contrary to the typical stereotypes. The text concludes this chapter by stating that there is no one best leadership style. This idea sets the stage for the next chapter on contingency theories.Self-Assessment Quizzes I want to make a couple comments about the self-assessment quizzes. My hope is that by answering the questions in the self-assessments you will get a better sense of what the concepts mean and that hopefully you will gain some insight into your traits, styles, and preferences. However, the scores should be taken with a grain of salt because no inventory, and especially short inventories like those you are completing in this class, can accurately assess all your nuances. If you think the total score doesn't reflect you, or that certain questions do not measure you accurately, that is fine.Reflection upon the self-assessment inventories is valuable. Whether you agree with that assessment is of lesser importance. Analysis Paper One of the requirements of this course is for you to complete an Analysis Paper which will be due the last week of the course. For this assignment, you are to read one of the four books listed below. You are to identify the author's purpose for the book, its major themes, principles and concepts, and describe how those themes, principles, and concepts relate to the themes, principles and concepts presented by DuBrin in the text.In other words, I want to see at minimum four (4) concepts from your â€Å"chosen author† and how they to compare to DuBrin: where they agree, where they don't or if they don't. This is not a book review but rather it is an analysis of an outside reading, and the documentation of that reading's relatedness to the material you have been studying throughout this class. Technical Requirements: * The paper should be submitted as a Word document attached to the assignment. * APA citation style is required * Length: 6-10 pages – no more, no less * Double- spaced, 12 point font Must include, at a minimum: * an Abstract * an Introduction Section * a Discussion Section * a Conclusion Section * a Reference page * Both your name and page number must be included on each page of the paper (in a header is preferred). * Be certain you have carefully reviewed the paper for the requirements, misspellings, syntax errors and page numbers. The book you select will need to be obtained from a local library, Webster's library, a bookstore, an online book service such as Amazon. com (linked below), or some other book source.I would encourage you to actually purchase the book so you can retain it for future purposes. The books from which you must choose are: * Outliers: The Story of Success by Malcolm Gladwell ( 2011) * It's All politics: Winning in a World Where Hard Work and Talent Aren't Enough by Kathleen Kelley Reardon ( 2006) * Tribal leadership: Leveraging Natural Groups to Build a Thriving Organization by Dave Logan, John King and Halee Fischer-Wright (2011) * The Zen leader: 10 Ways to Go From Barely Managing to Leading Fearlessly by Ginny Whitelaw (Apr 22, 2012) If, because f special circumstances (i. e. you are out of the country), you are unable to obtain one of the books listed above, and would like to review and report on an alternative, you must send me, no later than the beginning of Week 5, the title of the book you are requesting to use, the date of its copyright, and a valid rationale for using the alternative. An appropriate rationale could be, for example, that none of the books are available to you because you are on military deployment, and book resources at your location are limited.Just wanting to review a book that is: 1) more easily available, 2) one you are currently using in another course, 3) one you have read previously for another class or 4) one you would like to review for personal reasons, is not an adequate reason and will not be approved. Once you have decided on your book, go to the Course Home Page and click on the link entitled â€Å"Analysis Paper Book Sign Up. † Click â€Å"Sign Up† next to the book that you are choosing so that I know which book you will be using. You should choose your book for analysis, and indicate your choice on the sign up sheet, by the end of Week 5.Please be aware: 1. This assignment is due on Wednesday of Week 9 2. Late submissions will NOT be accepted unless arrangements have been made with me personally no later than the beginning of Week 7. 3. You will be required to submit your paper to Turnitin prior to submitting it in the Assignments tool. The Turnitin assignment will be found on the course homepage. Make a copy of the Turnitin originality report to include with the assignment submission. Should you have any questions or concerns, please let me know. Week 2 Activities Required Readings The following items are required reading for this week: . DuBrin, A. (2013) Lead ership: Research Findings, Practices, and Skills (7th ed). Mason, OH: South-Western * Chapter 3: Charisma and Transformational Leadership * Chapter 4: Leadership Behaviors, Attitudes and Styles Copies of these two chapters are included in the â€Å"Textbook eReserves† folder on the Course Homepage for your convenience. 1. Also, review the article on leadership and emotional intelligence: Goleman, D. , Boyatzis, R. , & McKee, A. (2001). Primal Leadership: The Hidden Driver of Great Performance. Harvard Business Review, 79(11), 42-51. DiscussionsAfter reading the course materials and required readings, you should be prepared to participate in our weekly discussion. * Week 2 Discussion – Charasmatic Leadership In Chapter 3 of the text, DuBrin suggests it might be artificial to separate charismatic from transformational leadership. In fact, on page 93 of the text, DuBrin clearly states that charismatic leadership is a component of transformational leadership. Respond to al l 3 questions using concrete examples to support your answer and then respond to at least 1 other student’s posting whose answer you relate to. 1.Have you experienced charismatic leaders who were unable to be transformational? 2. Have you experienced transformational leaders who were not charismatic? 3. What were the circumstances surrounding the situation(s) you have experienced? Once you post your answer please respond to at least one other students' post. Assignments Please complete the following assignments and submit via the Assignments tool. You will find a link to each of these assignments within this module. Remember to use the text box for your submission – Do not attach a document. Directions for completing the assignments can be found in the syllabus. Case Study * Ch. 3 Leadership Case Problem B – Time to Rebound at Willow Pond. Pgs. 101- 102 * Questions 1, 2, and 3. * Self Assessments * Ch. 3 Quiz 3-1 The Emotional Expressiveness Scale. Pgs. 79 †“ 80 * Ch. 4 Quiz 4-2 What Style of Leader Are you or Would You Be? Pgs. 125-126 Analysis Paper The list of available books from which you will choose one will be provided this week. By the end of Week 5, please use the â€Å"Analysis Paper Book Sign Up† link on the Course Homepage to indicate which book you will be reading. You are responsible for obtaining this book on your own. Ch. Quiz 3-1 â€Å"The Emotional Expressiveness Scale†: My composite score for the Chapter 3 Quiz was 72. This score places me in the level that defines my emotionality as â€Å"about right for a charismatic individual† and that I am â€Å"emotionally expressive†. I believe this is fair assessment. On numerous occasions in my past jobs, my employees and co-workers have commented on their trust in my abilities to get the job done and that I will not â€Å"throw them under the bus† for my own gain or as a result of a decision I have made. Also, my last supervisor commente d to me on my vision in leading my division. Ch. Quiz 4-2 â€Å"What Style Leadership Are You or Would You Be? †: I scored 14 on this assessment. The scale defined in the text is that a score of 15 and higher indicates a Participative style and a score of 5 or below indicates an Authoritarian style. There is no description for the scores (like mine) that do not fall in either range. I submit that the leadership style required will depend on the situation and environment you are in at the moment. There are times where you have to be the authoritarian and other times where you have to be more democratic in your approach. The trick is to know when. ) There are several reasons while this case pertains to this chapter on charismatic and transformational leadership. As indicated in the issues Heather and the owners see as most pressing, Willow Pond as an organization that must transform itself from a low performer to a higher level to survive. Considering the task at hand, Heather will have to demonstrate many of the traits of a charismatic leader to be successful. This case demonstrates the need for both utilized in unison to achieve success. 2) There are several key leadership areas where Heather can focus to transform Willow Pond.I will present the three areas that I believe to be the highest priority. First, Willow Pond has been losing money for the past three years. She must concentrate resources where most needed. Especially in the areas that could impact passing the state inspections which could close them down. If this were to occur, not only would the residence by impacted but also the employees. Also, there are services (i. e. wireless internet/fresh paint/improved food quality) that could be put into place that would improve the physical appearance of the facility and the quality of life for the residence.Second, she must work to help the staff understand the need for change. Not only from the possible loose of income but in that the focus of their organization is to take care of people. Mistreating the residents when they make simple requests is an unacceptable behavior. This not only impacts the morale of the residents but can generate a reputation that can cause others not to choose Willow Pond as their assisted living choice. Lastly, I believe she needs to build trust not only in the management and employees but also with the residents that all parties have a vested interest in success.If the residents trust that the staff will take care of them and the employees trust that she is doing all she can to support them, the cumulative effect will be success. 3) Heather can utilize many charismatic aspects of her personality to aid in the transformation of Willow Pond. She will have to employ her â€Å"masterful communication skills† to get her vision on how great Willow Pond can become with everyone’s support. She must be very tactful in her communication to ensure she keeps folks on board with her plans.This is very important considering that Willow Pond has lost money for the last three years and the possibility of the facility being closed if it does not turn around. Additionally, she will need to set the example for others with her energy and her actions by going the extra mile to ensure success. 1. Have you experienced charismatic leaders who were unable to be transformational? 2. Have you experienced transformational leaders who were not charismatic? 3. What were the circumstances surrounding the situation(s) you have experienced 1) Yes. Dubin implies for a leader to be transformational he/she must be charismatic.However, charisma on its own does not make one a transformational leader. If the charismatic leader cannot provide the vision and focus required to change the culture and/or subculture of the organization, he/she will not be effective. 2) Honestly, I cannot say that I have worked for a transformational leader that was not charismatic at some level. 3) What I have experienced are transformational leaders that have several difference levels of charisma. What drove the success of these leaders was their type of charisma match to organization required for transformation.For example, one of my past supervisors was a more reserved personality but was very personable, good at promoting individual growth and setting goals. These traits proved to be valuable in merging two product offices and building a project office organization. He would be a â€Å"Hedgehog† utilizing Jim Collins definitions in the book â€Å"Good to Great†. The flip side, I have had one supervisor who was very charismatic but was not effective in leading transformation. He could not focus the organizations energy on a common goal. Jim Collins would classify him as a â€Å"Fox†.It sounds like he may have been successful in some aspects, but at what cost. This type of work environment not only drives a lot of good people away it has a tendency to taint those who stay. The long term impacts on the organization and personnel may be more harmful than any perceived short-term success. V/R, JS Week 3 Activities Required Readings The following items are required reading for this week: DuBrin, A. (2013) Leadership: Research Findings, Practices, and Skills (7th ed). Mason, OH: South-Western * Chapter 5: Contingency and Situational Leadership * Chapter 6: Leadership Ethics and Social ResponsibilityWeek 3 Overview Overview The contingency model discussed in Chapter 5 assumes that the most effective leadership style or behavior depends on the situation or the followers. The leader's   behaviors are similar to those discussed before, but in this case the appropriate behavior depends on the situation, i. e. , is contingent upon some other factors. The theories differ in terms of what types of contingent factors are important and how leaders should behave in light of those contingent factors. You will need to become familiar with the key contingency variables th at differentiate the various contingency theories.Chapter 6 introduces the concepts of ethical and moral leadership as well as social responsibility. While these topics have always been important, recent events involving arguably unethical leader behaviors makes these ideas more relevant today. Required Readings The following items are required reading for this week: DuBrin, A. (2013) Leadership: Research Findings, Practices, and Skills (7th ed). Mason, OH: South-Western * Chapter 5:   Contingency and Situational Leadership * Chapter 6: Leadership Ethics and Social Responsibility Week 3 Instructor NotesChapter 5 – Contingency and Situational Leadership This chapter introduces the concept of contingency leadership, or what has also been called situational leadership ( Hershey and Blanchard). . The theories collected in this general category extend the behavior-based leadership research by recognizing that specific leader behaviors are more effective in some situations than o ther situations. In other words, the most effective leadership behavior is contingent upon the situation, which can be broadly defined to encompass anything in the leader's environment.For example, one contingency factor that is found in almost every contingency theory focuses on the follower's personal characteristics. Other common contingency variables include: the nature of the task, the nature of the work group, the organization's culture, and the amount of power the leader possesses. Each theory incorporates specific factors based on what factors the researcher felt were most important. There are many different contingency theories, but the textbook introduces the most important theories. Fiedler's Contingency TheoryThe first contingency theory introduced in the textbook ( pages 144-146) is Fiedler's Contingency Theory, or what is sometimes called â€Å"leader match† or â€Å"LPC theory. † In this theory, the contingent factors are 1) the leader's relationship wit h the group or follower, 2) how clearly defined or structured the task is that the person or group must perform, and 3) the amount of position power possessed by the leader. Dichotomizing these three variables results in eight possible combinations that range from little leader control to high leader control.The theory matches the leader's preferred style, either high task or high relationship, with one of the possible combinations. When the leader's style matches the existing situation, this should result in effective leadership. Fiedler's model is important because it was one of the first theories to highlight the contingent nature of leadership. While the research support is mixed for his theories, nevertheless Fiedler's theories were important in the development of leadership research. Another contingency theory developed by Fred Fiedler and his colleague Joseph Garcia is called the Cognitive Resource Theory.This theory describes how stress plays a key role in determining how a leader’s intelligence is related to group performance. These are the three points made by Cognitive Resource Theory. 1. Those leaders with greater experience but lower intelligence are like to have higher-performing groups under high-stress conditions. Or under low stress conditions – the leader’s experience e is less relevant. 2. Leaders with high intelligence are more valuable than an experienced leader when innovation is needed and stress levels are low. 3.The intellectual abilities of a leader who is experience stress will be diverted from the task at hand. As a result, measures of leader intelligence and competence do not correlate with group preference when the leader is stressed (New Approaches to effective Leadership: Cognitive Resources and Organizational Performance, 1987). Path – Goal Theory The next major contingency theory introduced in the textbook is path–goal theory, which is usually associated with Robert House's theories. While th ere are several variations of this theory, the book presents the most common version.Although the theory is relatively complex, it focuses on the followers and the situation, just like Fiedler's LPC theory. However, the important characteristics of the followers and the situation are different than in Fiedler's LPC theory. The contingency variables in path-goal theory are based on expectancy theory, one of the more powerful motivation theories. Because effective leaders must motivate followers, it makes sense to integrate a motivation theory with a leadership theory. Unlike many other contingency theories that focus on only two leader behaviors or styles, path-goal theory attempts to explain in which situations each of four ifferent leadership styles are most effective: directive, supportive, participative, and achievement oriented leadership styles. A newer version of the theory adds transformational leadership behaviors, but this is not covered in the book and you do not need to k now it for this course. Blanchard Situational Leadership Model The next leadership model, the Situational Leadership II model, is one of the most popular leadership models. Many companies train managers in this theory. The Situational Leadership model was specifically developed to simplify the complexity of most contingency theories (see Figure 5-4).As leadership theories become more complex, they also become more difficult for managers to use on a day-to-day basis. Accordingly ,Blanchard developed a simplified theory focuses only on the followers' characteristics. They concluded that the follower's readiness to perform a task is the most important contingency factor, even though there are many other relevant factors. Followers' â€Å"readiness† levels are comprised of their abilities and willingness to do a specific task. In this model, the leaders' behaviors are either task oriented or relationship oriented, which makes it similar to the Leadership Grid and Fiedler's LPC mo del.Although the logic of Situational Leadership's prescriptions is somewhat questionable, and the research support is somewhat weak, nevertheless this theory has had a big impact on management and leadership training. Blanchard subsequently developed a modified version of this Situational Leadership model that shares the same name, which can create confusion. Normative Decision Model The next contingency model introduced in the textbook is the Normative Decision Model proposed by Vroom and Yetton, and later modified by Vroom and Jago.As the name indicates, this theory attempts to prescribe the best type of decision-making in a given situation: autocratic, consultative, or group-based decision making. This is a contingency theory because the critical decision nodes or points in the theory reflect either a concern with the situation or with the followers. When diagrammed, the decision nodes or points in this model create a decision tree. Thus, this model is also referred to as the â €Å"decision tree model. † Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory Another perspective under the contingency approach is the Leader – Member Exchange (we will see this model again in Chapter 9).The textbook finishes with a short description of how top executives actually lead and a discussion of leading during a crisis. These two topic areas are descriptive, and lack the kind of theoretical reasoning found in other theories and they have very limited research support. According to the text, top executives perform multiple leadership styles, the choice of which depends on the situation (a contingency approach). All of the styles reflect some combination of strategic leadership and change leadership, with relatively little emphasis on motivating individual followers.In a sense, these styles are variations on the transformational leadership style discussed earlier in the textbook. Week 3 Instructor Notes Chapter 6 – Leadership, Ethics, and Social Responsibility This ch apter introduces the concepts of ethical and moral leadership behaviors. Whether you can prevent unethical or immoral behaviors by teaching ethics and morality is not clear. However, being aware of ethical and moral issues is valuable, if for no other reason to have students reflect on their own ethics and morality. The text has a multifaceted approach to ethics. To be ethical, you should: * Be honest and trustworthy (have integrity) Pay attention to all relevant stakeholders * Find compatible goals for all stakeholders (â€Å"build community†) * Respect individuals by treating them fairly and honestly * Demonstrate modesty and restraint in accomplishing moral victories (â€Å"accomplish silent victories†) Leaders, of course, differ in their morality and ethical nature. One of the more interesting ideas is that leaders' level of moral development varies (from pre-conventional, to conventional, to post-conventional levels). However, the situation can also have a large i mpact on the leader's behavior.Certain corporate cultures seem to ignore ethical issues, while others have extremely strong ethical values. There is a table outlining leaders who have questionable ethics, which will no doubt become longer over the near future. Whether leaders recently have become less ethical, or they are simply being detected and publicized more is an unanswered question. Corporate social responsibility is the next concept in the chapter. This refers to the idea that organizations, and thus their leaders, have an obligation to society beyond simply following laws and making money for owners and shareholders.This idea reflects an ethic, but goes beyond any simple ethical principle (see Figure 6-1 Initiatives for Achieving a Socially Responsible and Ethical Organization). As the book notes, the topic cannot be covered well in the space allotted, but being sensitive and responsive to the community and the employees is the key idea. Whether an organization should lose money to help the community and employees is the key issue. If the concept of a â€Å"virtuous circle† is correct, then there is no trade-off between profits and social responsibility because social and financial performance reinforce each others.Week 3 Discussion Description (click to collapse) Week 3 Discussion| Refer to the leadership styles shown on page 153 of the text (Figure 5-4 Situational Leadership II ). * What is your present style of leadership in most situations (directing, coaching, supporting and/or delegating)? * Is this leade

Answer 9 questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Answer 9 questions - Assignment Example ironic, in that in its translation, it means It is sweet and glorious, while the actual theme of the story is to present the horrific incidence of a chemical weapon attack on a British soldier, who was unable to put on a protective gas mask. Referring to such a poem as sweet and glorious, yet presenting and condemning the horrific incidences of World War I is pure irony (660). 3. The point of view in the short poem â€Å"Death of the Ball Turret Gunner,† changes at the end, to indicate how the society loses interest in an individual after death, even after having considered them useful during their lifetime (652). 4. The flea in John Donne’s poem, â€Å"The Flea†, is an extended metaphor, which is used in this poem to represent sexual encounter (847), making the blood of the two individuals involved mingle and end up as one, through the divine act of nature where a child is formed, which the individuals cannot control. 5. The theme of â€Å"To His Coy Mistress† compares to that of â€Å"The Flea† in that, both poems present the theme of love. The narrators of these poems want to present their case for love, where the women they are in love with do not seem to satisfy their desires for intimacy (981). Both of these poems are an argument to the end, since the narrators are consistently presenting their interests to their love partners who do not seem to cater for such interest adequately. 6. The comparison in the treatment of fairy tales in the poems, â€Å"Snow White,† and â€Å"Cinderella is that, the beautiful girls, who actually belong to the throne, are mistreated by their stepmothers after the death of the queens, who were their mothers. However, due to their beauty, they eventually ended up being married by the kings of these thrones and become queens. The contrast is that while the girl in Cinderella is married by his father, the one in snow white is married by his stepbrother. The writers make the tales more realistic through having the mistreated girls

Paul Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Paul - Essay Example He did not rely on any of the disciples or earlier converts to guide him in his ministry but he relied exclusively on the Jesus to guide him in his ministry. Apostle Paul is born in the city of Tarsus of Cilicia to an Israelite family belonging to the tribe of Judah. On the eighth day, he is circumcised in compliance with the Jewish laws of Moses (Philippians 3:5, Genesis 17:12, Leviticus 12). He became a Roman citizen owing to his birth location. Paul goes to Jerusalem in order to learn the way of the Pharisees in a Pharisaic Rabbinical school the school was under the leadership of Rabbi Gamaliel and he personally took the initiative to teach Paul. This is evident in Acts 5:34, 22:3. The Pharisees were well known for their rigid following of the laws of Moses which explains why Paul was very radical in his actions of persecuting those who had converted to Christianity. The martyrdom of Stephen takes place in which he is stoned to death due to his staunch faith in Jesus Christ. Stephen was among the seven deacons who were appointed by the disciples to assist in the distribution of food. Saul who later changed his name to Paul consented to have witnessed the death of Stephen. The conversion of Saul takes place which occurs when Saul was on his way to Damascus after receiving permission from the High Priest to go there and search for Christian believers in order to punish them. He then heard a voice of Jesus Christ asking him why he was persecuting his people. He became blinded after which he was led to Damascus to Ananias whom the Lord had directed to pray for him to be healed. He was later baptized and converted to Christianity. Acts 9. Paul makes his first visit to Jerusalem after his conversion. He began to preach there which angers some of the Jews to an extent that they plot to take away his life. He was later sent by the church to

Non Profit Organizations Inter Agency Collaboration Thesis

Non Profit Organizations Inter Agency Collaboration - Thesis Example horities will seek to align and incorporate strategic objectives while retaining flexibility and influence over outcomes and assuring value for money† (21). This implies that the vision shared by the collaborating agencies call for an alignment of their business culture and aspirations for comparable levels of service quality that entails commitment to openness between these agencies (Foster, 2002). In the case of non profit organizations, collaboration between agencies is usually the practice in the implementation of joint projects for the welfare of their stakeholders. The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) uses â€Å"nonprofit† as a legal term referring to organizations that may only use their revenues for their charitable or educational mission rather than profiting from their projects and distributing the profits to owners or shareholders (Eschenfelder, 2007). These nonprofit organizations are classified as tax exempt. Those who donate to public charity can claim a tax deduction (Berry, 2005). Unlike governments, non-profit agencies have no taxing authority, so they are reliant on charitable donations, volunteerism and grants from private foundations and government (Eschenfelder, 2007). It follows that nonprofit organizations face the perennial challenge of securing funds to cover costs of implementing their mission. Arsenault (1998) contends that nonprofit organizations maintain separate systems simultaneously: that of obtaining resources and another system serving their consumers. On the contrary, for-profit organizations operate only under one system that involves consumers purchasing products and services for the revenue generation of the organization – both processes happening simultaneously in just one system (148). In addition, nonprofits that use volunteers manage two human resources systems: the employed staff and another system for the volunteers. It is apparent that planning a nonprofit merger is more complex due to all the considerations

The high cost of a breast cancer drug Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The high cost of a breast cancer drug - Essay Example (3). Evidence from studies show that the essential benefit derived from Tykerb is that it doubles the time required for the progression of the disease. What this means is that women pay a high price for delaying the progress of the disease by a few months, with no hope of a cure. (4). This high cost of drug therapy for women with breast cancer repeats itself as we examine another recent drug introduction for the treatment of breast cancer. The drug Avastin has been in use in the treatment of some other forms of cancer, and has recently received FDA approval for its use in the treatment of breast cancer. Through this approval it is estimated that its use would increase involving about 43,000 women found suitable for its use. These women are however going to pay a high cost for this treatment. The annual cost involved in the use of Avastin would be to the tune of $ 92,000. Women with an annual family income would have to pay $ 55,000 for the Avastin drug regimen for a year. The pharmaceutical company involved Genentech makes the oft repeated claim in support of high cost of drugs and that is the recovery of investment in research for the drug. If drug treatment of breast cancer is to be so expensive, then many women are going to be denied the benefits of drug development for the treatment of breast cancer. (5). The use of Avastin in the treatment of breast cancer virtually means an escalation in cost by as much as four times the other adjuvant drug treatments. This is an example of the enhanced costs of the newer drugs that are coming into the market for the treatment of breast cancer. Limited finances available for spending on the treatment of breast cancer in women, which means that with the high costs of drugs in the treatment of breast cancer many women are going to be denied the benefits of drug therapy in the treatment of cancer. Patients denied the treatment will simply have to be told they cannot be given the better drugs, useful in

Assignment4 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Assignment4 - Assignment Example German composers and their pieces were also numerous; they were represented by Ruhe, meine seele, Ach weh mir ungluckhaftem man and Heimliche Aufforderung by Richard Strauss. Several pieces by Tosti added Italian passion to the concert; they were represented by A Vucchella, Non T’amo Piu, Ideale, L’alba Separa Dalla Luce L’ombra and Marechiare. One piece in Spanish by Pablo Sarozabal added some temper to the performance. Rare Maori and Samoa languages were represented by a couple of folk songs followed by the nice guitar accompaniment. C. I was an attentive listener during the concert. First of all, I know that I had to write the concert report after it, so I concentrated on singing to provide more comprehensive analysis of the performance. Second of all, the concert was engaging because Pati turned to be a very pleasant and funny young singer who could easily attract attention of people and make them laugh. All pieces listed in the program were new for me. I was familiar with other compositions by Liszt and Strauss, but they were instrumental. D. The whole concert was aimed at revealing the power and beauty of Pati’s voice. His tenor was outstanding as well as his singing techniques. It was easy to indentify that the voice belonged to a young man due to the fact that it was very pure. The piano performed the main accompaniment. A couple of folk songs were followed by the guitar. In fact, they would never sound better with any other instrument. E. Generally, I liked all the pieces included in the concert. However, I recollected some of them after the concert considering the best ones. For instance, Ruhe, meine seele by Strauss was very sad and tender piece. It had some Gothic elements in both lyrics and music. Enigmatic sound combined with the tenor of the singer resulted in high quality performance which was difficult to dislike. The

The Development of Socio-Autobiography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Development of Socio-Autobiography - Essay Example I have developed the opinion that the complicated forms in society are better understood with the experience gained in facing societal challenges. Having raised three children who are currently teenagers, I have learnt to appreciate the value of family principles. I had been raised to value the concept offered in safeguarding family values through providing care and attention to the members within the family setting. These measures have been the changes that have encouraged the formation of the moral law within my family setting. My family has always valued the need to support members through difficult experiences. I believe that I have managed to guide my children to the age where I can easily entrust their care, to my treasured family members. The modern society has been developed to offer opportunities to hardworking individuals in facing the harsh economic crisis. Ever since my divorce in 2007, I have attained alternative options to support my three children. This has been in the quest to articulate the mode of survival. My family has since been lucky to have the moral support from my parents who have been my role models. The sociological knowledge has helped me appreciate the various formations within the immediate environment. Since I joined the army four years ago, I have gained the experience to accept the stereotypical behavior developed in a biased system. Life in Afghanistan is different from the American system, and the daily tasks vary in the scale. Furthermore, I had been presented with the challenge of gender disparity with minimal support for women within the army. Through these challenges, the experiences accorded have enabled my understanding of the different setting in lifestyle. I have also learnt to appreciate the family setting in a multicultural setting and the values believed to drive the ambition to achieve success. Through this socio-autobiography, I have managed to understand my experiences and the need to deliver an effective guidanc e to the growth of my children. I have managed to gain the incentives into the values that had shaped my existence within my family, and the value of gaining intelligence through advanced education. I had faced the challenge of a divorce when my eldest child had been only 13 years in 2007. This experience had been a difficult moment with three children who needed the moral and material support. I sought to find the strategy that would be needed in offering uttermost attention and care to my children. I had not been prepared for the experience because I had valued the element of family setting and stable formulation of regulations within a familiar construction. This has since changed with experiences in a new cultural base in Afghanistan with the challenge of hostile engagement. The army had been the source of support that I had needed to deliver support to my family members. Although the difficulty faced in Afghanistan involves challenges from stereotypical attitude from the native s, I have managed to gain courage from the experiences that I had raising my family. In the Afghanistan setting, there is minimal opportunity and experience realized in women participating in battles. They are charged with the role of offering support to their children and provide the necessities. Women are undermined and offered the stereotypical behavior to be linked to minor roles within the family. However, my family had supported my desire to progress and become an active member of the society.

Buisness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Buisness - Essay Example Furthermore, such a management style of Dr. Kair was constantly leading to losses of sales due to the artificially prolonged sales process and sales people’s having no power over their work. 2 Identify and fully describe the management style (Chapter 7) that your would prefer to use as the CEO of the company. Choose the one that fits you best. The most popular management style of today is, probably, participative, or democratic, management. Since the employees of We Care Ambulatory Devices have low internal morale, trust, sharing of responsibilities and empowerment would, I believe, improve the overall situation. Employees should have a right to use own initiatives and express their ideas, which, in their turn, may contribute to the success of the organization. Delegation of tasks to the subordinates, as well as giving them freedom to take certain decisions independently will raise the morale of the staff and increase sales though speeding up the process. 3 Using your manageme nt style, how would you change the company? What would you do to increase internal morale, customer satisfaction and profitability? This is very hard to do and there is no one way of moving the company forward.

Nigeria Student Essay Example for Free

Nigeria Student Essay My name is Adebimpe Godwin Akinade, I am from Nigeria, and I am 16 years of age, I have three (3) sisters, one of them is in Nigeria while the other two are here in London with me. I love playing video games during my lecture time and also reading novels as well. I love hip pop and rap music, I love watching horror movies, my favourite movie is â€Å"THE EXORCISM OF EMILY ROSE†. I attended primary school in my home country at Stella Maris Primary School, I graduated from the school in primary 5 in 2004, I left to further my studies at Command Day Secondary school, due to the low standards of the school I was forced to leave to another school to complete my high school certificate. I moved to Stella Maris College where I completed my high school and attained my GCSE Equivalent. I came to Kaplan International Colllege to do a 2 Term foundation programme in Science and Engineering to progress to city university to study Civil Engineering, I Chose to study the course because the subjects which I find interesting are the main subject needed for the course, The subjects are Mathematics and Physics and I hope to be able to do as expected in the course. My English though is not bad but I still have some areas which I fall behind and I Hope to resolve the problem as I progress in Kaplan. One major problem I have in English writing is the punctuation marks ,I have problems in putting the punctuations in the right place been dealing with the problem for a while now but I hope to get over it during my period of study I Kaplan and through the following ways : Regular writing of various essays, taking note of the punctuation marks as used in the newspapers, novels, and various articles.

Employment Law Legal Process Paper Essay Example for Free

Employment Law Legal Process Paper Essay To handle a complaint of discrimination effectively, an employer should have a basic understanding of the process and procedures used by the EEOC to enforce the federal laws that prohibit employment discrimination. By knowing in advance what to expect, an employer can best prepare its defense. EEOC ProcessAny individual who believes that his or her employment rights have been violated may file a charge of discrimination with EEOC. Charges may be filed by mail or in person at their nearest EEOC office. Once an employee or applicant files a charge, the EEOC then serves notice on the employer, usually by mail, that a charge has been filed against them. This notice normally includes a copy of the actual charge filed by the employee or applicant. All laws enforced by EEOC, except the Equal Pay Act, require filing a charge with EEOC before a private lawsuit may be filed in court. There are strict time limits within which charges must be filed. A charge must be filed with EEOC within 180 days from the date of the alleged violation, in order to protect the charging partys rights. This 180-day filing deadline is extended to 300 days if the charge also is covered by a state or local anti-discrimination law (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission). Employers must understand that the persons who evaluate and decide the outcome of employment discrimination cases (the EEOC investigator, federal or state judge, and/or jury) have keen senses of fairness and expect that employees will be treated in a fair manner. As a result, employers are exposed to substantial liability for any acts, including perceived acts, of discrimination in the workplace. Employers should take any charge of discrimination seriously and the employer must keep in mind that, at a minimum, it needs to have a legitimate, non-discriminatory reason for taking the action in question. In addition, an employers response will be evaluated by persons who have a different perspective than the employer. What may appear to an employer, as a benign, routine employment action, can be perceived by a jury as the most pernicious, discriminatory deed. With this in mind, an employer should structure its response to show that its action was not only legal, but also fair (Bureau of National Affairs, 2002). Resolving the Discrimination ChargeThe filing of the charge triggers an EEOC investigation into whether or not there is reasonable cause to believe that the employer did in fact illegally discriminate against an individual. An employer may be asked to submit a written statement of position to explain its version of events. At some point in the investigation, a fact-finding conference might be held (Bureau of National Affairs, 2002). Relatively informal, a fact-finding conference is attended by the charging party, respondent and necessary witnesses. No official record is made and witnesses are not placed under oath. Most employers bring counsel to the conference. After concluding its investigation, the EEOC makes a determination as to whether there is reasonable cause to believe that the alleged discrimination occurred. The investigation starts with a review of all documents in the employees personnel file, and should be expanded to include, among other things, a review of applicable company policies, at least one interview with potential witnesses, and a review of internal documents for any prior incidents similar to the action on which the complaint is based. The lack of effective anti-discrimination policies can be damaging to an employers case. On the other hand, a well-publicized, strictly enforced, non-discrimination policy can prove invaluable to an employer defending against a charge of discrimination. By reviewing its policies, an employer also may discover that the complaining employee did not follow proper company procedure in reporting the complaint. All of this information can be used by the employer in responding to the complaint. A reasonable cause determination indicates that it is more likely than not that illegal discrimination took place. A no reasonable cause determination means that the EEOC has not found sufficient evidence to support a finding of discrimination. While a no cause finding does not bar the complaining party from subsequently filing suit in state or federal court on the same claim, as a practical matter most employees do not pursue their claims after the EEOC issues a no cause finding. If the evidence establishes that discrimination has occurred, the employer  and the charging party will be informed of this in a letter of determination that explains the finding. EEOC will then attempt conciliation with the employer to develop a remedy for the discrimination (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission). If the case is successfully conciliated, or if a case has earlier been successfully mediated or settled, neither EEOC nor the charging party may go to court unless the conciliation, mediation, or settlement agreement is not honored (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission). If EEOC is unable to successfully conciliate the case, the agency will decide whether to bring suit in federal court. However, no statements made by any party during the conciliation process can be used in any subsequent lawsuit. If EEOC decides not to sue, it will issue a notice closing the case and giving the charging party 90 days in which to file a lawsuit on his or her own behalf (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission). CONCLUSION Employees who believe that they have been discriminated against by an employer, an employment agency, or a labor union have the right to file a charge of discrimination with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). Employers need to ensure that discriminatory practice or action, if it did occur, is stopped, and that it does not occur again. By properly handling the charge at its early stages, an employer can reduce significantly, or possibly eliminate the potential liability. The Bureau of National Affairs, 2002. Retrieved September 11, 2006, from http://www.bna.comU.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Retrieved September 11, 2006, from http://www.eeoc.gov

Theories of Government Control of the Internet

Theories of Government Control of the Internet Critically analyse Lawrence Lessigs argument that the ability of governments to control activities within cyberspace is determined by the codes of cyberspace. The Internet enables individuals to access a ‘new realm of human activity’[1] and has affected the lives of billions of people. Due to the effect that the Internet has on citizens of all states, many called for legal involvement. The increasing use of the Internet for commercial purposes sparked initiatives to attempt to legally regulate the system[2]. Internet traffic is carried over vast communications networks which are owned and controlled by public and private sector providers. The European Commission has had to step in on a number of occasions were a merger of providers would be a breach of competition laws, due to the stake of the market each provider has.[3] Ian Lloyd states that the internet is similar to other forms of communication as it is heavily regulated but it lacks specific legal provisions[4]. The Communications Act 2003 is said to have few provisions regarding internet regulation. At a national level, communication regulation has operated for years and international agencies like the International Telecommunications Union adopts a more functional role towards regulating. As the Internet is a global tool, policing and regulating it seems a considerable legal and political question. Some argue that the internet is governed by internet users as they reach a consensus. Regulatory structures are seen to evolve on their own rather than develop in an organised way. Lawrence Lessig believes that governments’ attempts to regulate the internet will fail. He concedes however, that governments may be able to regulate the architecture of the Internet and in turn it could develop into a form of regulation across all areas[5]. Lessig proposes that internet sites should have greater power to identify customers so as to recognise individuals’ credentials[6]. This form of indirect regulation would form a basis of self-regulation within cyberspace. He states that the state may affect Internet service providers (ISPs) from regulating an aspect which will make it more difficult for it to do business.[7] Further e-commerce will lead to greater involvement of the state due to the commercial nature of these transactions thus making identification of parties easy. Lessig continues by warning that if the Internet is regulated by a ‘closed code’ then the state’s effectiveness to regulate remains unchanged. If however, the Internet adopts an ‘open code’ then it will act as a check on the governments’ power.[8] The internet is defined by a set of protocols (TCP/IP) which are rules for how your computer will interact with a server and vice versa. These protocols make interaction possible as users agree on simple protocol of data exchange. A ‘closed code’ has bothered many which believe that an ‘open code’ fits in with the values of the internet of free and easy file sharing. This code is a public code, which people may view without gaining permission of others and so facilitates transparency. Alternative views state that the rise in e-commerce will result in greater input of the state, but there are problems connected to regulating e-commerce. Rowland Macdonald point out there are inherent difficulties when regulating e-commerce as it is not geographically or jurisdictionally restricted and there are also competing pressures whether to regulate or not to regulate as seen in Lessig’s argument [9]. Lars Davis states that two dangers must be avoided[10]. The first danger is under-regulation, as this would lead to the perception that e-commerce is an activity that contains an unacceptable high element of risk and so it will prevent parties from people participating in commercial activity on the Internet. This decrease in commercial activity will be regardless whether they are commercial entities or they are consumers. The second danger is over-regulation. The market would become rigid and inflexible which can be said to be the Internet’s most appealing feature. This in turn would lead to a stifling in development and perhaps in commercial entities setting up in jurisdictions which have less rigid regulations. Davis states that these ‘regulation havens’ which have a reduced or minimal control is a distinct possibility. The overly strong control could be detrimental to the attractiveness of parties conducting e-commerce. The benefits offered by e-commerce would be lost to markets with less rigid regulations and so economic development would suffer in those countries which have rigid regulations. Rowland Madonald note a further difficulty in deciding where the scope of a particular state’s regulation should extend[11]. They ask the question whether it should extend to ‘businesses that are based in another state but which conduct business with consumers or businesses in the particular state?’ The geographical factors which usually make the scope of a jurisdiction easy to see are blurred when relating to internet commerce. They use the example of the EC Directive on Certain Aspects of Electronic Commerce in the Internal Market[12] to show an attempt to create a ‘balance point’ between member states and regulating e-commerce. The Directive recognises the difficulties which commercial entities face when having to take into account different legal regimes. The ‘country of origin’ principle which EC member states adhere to, allow the regulations of one state the right not to be discriminated against the regulations of another. In other words, once marketed in the home state, it can be marketed in all member states. However, these regulations which provide a balance for e-commerce provide little help when dealing with commercial entities that are not based in the EU. By using the Directive as an example, we see that incompatibility with its clauses regarding e-commerce could result in an action being taken and a case being brought in the European Court of Justice (ECJ) and a judgment against a party. If the commercial entities are not EC member states then there is no authoritative organ which can force a party to comply with the regulations. Amit Sachdeva proposes that rules governing private international law are inadequate to deal with e-commerce[13]. Sachdeva states there are four solutions to the problem of regulating cyberspace and its jurisdiction. First, the laws could be expanded to include the Internet. This suggestion is taken by Davies but as noted, the problem of an over-regulated system would be detrimental to many economies. Secondly, the establishment of a new international organisation to propose a set of rules appropriate for cyberspace jurisdiction would be beneficial to governments when attempting to legislate. Thirdly, these decisions need to take into account commercial entities acting as a decentralised body of various actors and stakeholder. Lastly, he proposes a treaty based international harmonisation model where rules are certain and predictable and at the same time flexible in order to ensure that the potential benefits of this technology are meaningfully consumed by individuals[14]. However, S achdeva warns that a comprehensive treaty based solution on all possible issues is an unrealistic target as the apparent youth of the Internet suggests that a number of complex issues are yet to be seen[15]. Georgios Zekos believes that new terminology, which recognizes the complexity of the Internet relationship and state, is necessary[16]. He suggests that a cyberspace jurisdiction should be used for cyberspace actions as their actions are only felt in cyberspace. Zekos proposes that cyber courts and cyber arbitral tribunals could have jurisdiction to solve all actions taking place on the net and the enforcement of their awards and decisions will be made according to international conventions on internet enforcement and e-awards[17]. Therefore, cyberspace does not owe sovereignty to any state but only to cyberspace itself. Conclusion Before adopting any model or any combination of different models, it must be remembered that the internet is here to stay, and so is the potential to commit and facilitate unlawful acts, and the resultant litigation by commercial entities or individuals. We have heard of Lessig’s argument, but have also seen acts made by the EC in order to regulate internet use. Certainly, with growing numbers of Internet users and the growth of e-commerce, more breaches of law will arise and it is for the states to find an appropriate balance between over-regulating and under-regulating the Internet. Bibliography Johnson, D.R. and Post, D. ‘Law BordersThe Rise of Law in Cyberspace† (1996) 48 Stanford Law Review Lessig, L. The Code and other laws of cyberspace 1999. New York, Basic Books. Lloyd, Ian J. Information Technology Law 5th ed. 2008. New York, Oxford University Press Reed, C. Angel, J. Computer Law: The Law and Regulation of Information Technology 6th ed. 2008. New York, Oxford Universtiy Press. Rowland, D. Macdonald, E. Information Technology Law 2008. London, Cavendish. Sachdeva, A.M. ‘International jurisdiction in cyberspace: a comparative perspective’. Computer and Telecommunications Law Review 13(8), 2007; 245-258. Zekos,G.I. ‘State cyberspace jurisdiction and personal cyberspace jurisdiction’. International Journal of Law Information Technology 15 (1) 2007. pp 1-37. Footnotes [1] David R. Johnson and David G. Post, (1996)p.1367 [2] Liability for breach of the statutorily implied terms as to the quality of goods in s.14 of the Sales of Goods Act 1979. [3] Proposed merger of MCI/Sprint and Worldcom. Case No. COMP/M.1741-MCI. [4] Lloyd (2008) p.457 [5] Lessig (1999) p.49 [6] Lessig p.50. [7] P51. He uses an example of a mandatory ‘traceability regulation’ where software could trace the user when he provides minimal level of identification. The state could then legislate, making it mandatory for banks to do business with ISPs which have traceability software. [8] Lessig p 100 [9] Rowland Macdonald (2008) p.243. [10] Lars Davies- www.scl.org/content/ecommerce, s1.3.2. Report funded by the Society for Computer and Law. [11] Rowland Macdonald (2008) p.244. [12] 2000/31/EC [13] Sachdeva (2007) p.245. [14] Ibid p. 255. [15] Ibid p.256. [16] Georgios Zekos (2007) p.2 [17] Ibid p.36.